[Edward Manning Ruttenber (1872)] seasons." Their women were the most experienced star-gazeVs, scarce one of whom could not name them all, give the time of their rising and setting, their position, etc., in language of their own. Taurus they described as the horned head of a big wild animal inhabiting the distant country, but not theirs; that when it rose in a certain part of the heavens, then it was the season for planting. The firmament was to them an open book wherein they read the laws for their physical well-being, the dial plate by which they marked their years. They were not without government and laws, although both partook of the nomadic state. They had chief and subordinate rulers, and general as well as local councils. Their sachem was their local ruler and representative. Their general councils were composed of the sachems of different families or clans. But these councils assembled only in case of war, or other matters requiring concerted action. In all other respects the tribes or clans acted independently, and declared war and made peace without reference to their neighbors, unless the contest was such that assistance was desirable, in which case invitations to alliance were sent out by messengers. All obligations acquired their force from the acceptance of presents. In making agree ments or sending messages they took as many little sticks as there were conditions or parties in their proposals.1 If the con tracting parties agreed on all, each party, at the conclusion,