training but who had developed a reputation as a skilled engineer in the construction of canals and railroads. Jervis would go on to oversee the construction of the first phase of the Waterworks—which has come to be known as the Old Croton Aqueduct—so it is his name that is commonly associated with the design of the system. It is important to note, however, that much of what Jervis accomplished was drawn directly from the designs and specifications of his predecessor, David Bates Douglass. Construction on the system finally commenced in 1837. In addition to the many logistical and engineering-related solutions that needed to be devised in order to build such a vast and complicated piece of infrastructure in areas that were, by the standards of the day, quite remote, the public officials, engineers, and contractors responsible for completing the system also had to contend with organized resistance from both the thousands of laborers who actually built the system as well as the dozens of Westchester landowners who held the property through which the conduit would run. The laborers, mostly recent Irish immigrants escaping economic crisis in their home country, were at first paid seventy-five cents a day, although this rate would eventually climb as high as one full dollar. Typically, wages would be cut during the winter, when Section 1: Introduction History of the Croton Waterworks 13 Above: Public celebration of the opening of the Croton Waterworks Right: Drawing of an earth-tunneling method used in the construction of the Old Croton Aqueduct History of the Croton Waterworks 14 Of course, the Croton System’s impact was not limited to public health issues. From the very beginning, many sites along the Aqueduct—the Murray Hill Reservoir, High Bridge, Old Croton Dam—became popular destinations for sightseeing and recreation. Also popular were the fountains fed by the Waterworks, which produced jets of water that could be shaped into a myriad of beautiful configurations. Many of the structures outside of the city, with their evocations of American industrial progress and not-so-subtle nods to classical antiquity, also became favorite subjects for painters inspired by the Hudson River School.5 Magnificent though it may have been, the Old Croton Aqueduct could hardly keep pace with the increased use of its waters and the explosive growth of New York City. In the years between 1842 and 1884, this growth required continuous expansion and improvement on the System. This period saw the construction of many iconic structures, including a new receiving reservoir (now the Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis Reservoir, in Central Park), the High Bridge Tower, and several new dams and reservoirs in the Croton Watershed. In order to gain some immediate, short-term relief from water shortage, the City even sponsored the construction of a small new aqueduct: the so-called “48-Inch Line,” which is technically not a part of the Croton System, was named after the relatively short diameter of its conduit. True relief came in the form of the New Croton Aqueduct, an entirely new conduit and network of support structures that was constructed between 1884 and 1893. The new conduit was much larger than its predecessor, and where the conduit of the Old Croton Aqueduct was built mostly as a covered, aboveground structure following the contours Section 1: Introduction They got their wish, as the tall masonry arches of the High Bridge, eventually completed in 1848, allowed for all but the highest-masted of sailing ships to pass beneath unharmed. In addition to the High Bridge, other key structures along the aqueduct that took shape during these years included the Croton Dam (an initial version of which ruptured in 1841, unleashing a lethal flood), the Sing Sing Kill Bridge, the York Hill Receiving Reservoir, and the Murray Hill Distributing Reservoir, in addition to countless others. Amidst great fanfare, water finally began to flow into the Murray Hill Reservoir on July 4, 1842. A massive public celebration for the completion of the Croton Waterworks followed on October 14. These celebrations notwithstanding, the opening of the Waterworks did not immediately solve the problems it was intended to alleviate. Fires continued, and a cholera epidemic in 1849 killed five thousand citizens. Temperance reformers, who never appear to have been a significant driving force behind the construction of the system, were nonetheless hopeful that the infusion of Manhattan with free and clean water might result in less rampant drunkenness. But they were disappointed: breweries were among the first businesses to benefit from the ready supply of fresh water.2 Eventually, however, Croton water caught on, aided by a boost in water pressure brought on by the completion of High Bridge in 1848, the widespread installation of private bathroom fixtures, the popularization of public baths, and the introduction in the 1850s of that natural complement to the public water supply: the public sewer.3 By the 1880s, each